A lignocellulolytic enzyme system for fruit waste degradation : commercial enzyme mixture synergy and bioreactor design
- Authors: Gama, Repson
- Date: 2014
- Subjects: Enzymes -- Biotechnology , Enzymes -- Industrial applications , Lignocellulose -- Biodegradation , Biomass energy , Biomass conversion , Biochemical engineering , Agricultural wastes as fuel
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Doctoral , PhD
- Identifier: vital:4114 , http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1013073
- Description: Studies into sources of alternative liquid transport fuel energy have identified agro-industrial wastes, which are lignocellulosic in nature, as a potential feedstock for biofuel production against the background of depleting nonrenewable fossil fuels. In South Africa, large quantities of apple and other fruit wastes, called pomace, are generated from fruit and juice industries. Apple pomace is a rich source of cellulose, pectin and hemicellulose, making it a potential target for utilisation as a lignocellulosic feedstock for biofuel and biorefinery chemical production. Lignocellulosic biomass is recalcitrant in nature and therefore its degradation requires the synergistic action of a number of enzymes such as cellulases, hemicellulases, pectinases and ligninases. Commercial enzyme cocktails, containing some of these enzymes, are available and can be used for apple pomace degradation. In this study, the degradation of apple pomace using commercial enzyme cocktails was investigated. The main focus was the optimisation of the release of sugar monomers that could potentially be used for biofuel and biorefinery chemical production. There is no or little information reported in literature on the enzymatic degradation of fruit waste using commercial enzyme mixtures. This study first focused on the characterisation of the substrate (apple pomace) and the commercial enzyme cocktails. Apple pomace was found to contain mainly glucose, galacturonic acid, arabinose, galactose, lignin and low amounts of xylose and fructose. Three commercial enzyme cocktails were initially selected: Biocip Membrane, Viscozyme L (from Aspergillus aculeatus) and Celluclast 1.5L (a Trichoderma reesei ATCC 26921 cellulase preparation). The selection of the enzymes was based on activities declared by the manufacturers, cost and local availability. The enzymes were screened based on their synergistic cooperation in the degradation of apple pomace and the main enzymes present in each cocktail. Viscozyme L and Celluclast 1.5L, in a 50:50 ratio, resulted in the best degree of synergy (1.6) compared to any other combination. The enzyme ratios were determined on Viscozyme L and Celluclast 1.5L based on the protein ratio. Enzyme activity was determined as glucose equivalents using the dinitrosalicylic acid (DNS) method. Sugar monomers were determined using Megazyme assay kits. There is limited information available on the enzymes present in the commercial enzyme cocktails. Therefore, the main enzymes present in Viscozyme L and Celluclast 1.5L were identified using different substrates, each targeted for a specific enzyme and activity. Characterisation of the enzyme mixtures revealed a large number of enzymes required for apple pomace degradation and these included cellulases, pectinases, xylanases, arabinases and mannanases in different proportions. Viscozyme L contained mainly pectinases and hemicellulases, while Celluclast 1.5L displayed largely cellulase and xylanase activity, hence the high degree of synergy reported. The temperature optimum was 50ºC for both enzyme mixtures and pH optima were observed at pH 5.0 and pH 3.0 for Viscozyme L and Celluclast 1.5L, respectively. At 37ºC and pH 5.0, the enzymes retained more that 90% activity after 15 days of incubation, allowing the enzymes to be used together with less energy input. The enzymes were further characterised by determining the effect of various compounds, such as alcohols, sugars, phenolic compounds and metal ions at various concentrations on the activity of the enzymes during apple pomace hydrolysis. Apart from lignin, which had almost no effect on enzyme activity, all the compounds caused inhibition of the enzymes to varying degrees. The most inhibitory compounds were some organic acids and metal ions, as well as cellobiose and xylobiose. Using the best ratio for Viscozyme L and Celluclast 1.5L (50:50) for the hydrolysis of apple pomace, it was observed that synergy was highest at the initial stages of hydrolysis and decreased over time, though the sugar concentration increased. The type of synergy for optimal apple pomace hydrolysis was found to be simultaneous. There was no synergy observed between Viscozyme L and Celluclast 1.5L with ligninases - laccase, lignin peroxidase and manganese peroxidase. Hydrolysing apple pomace with ligninases prior to addition of Viscozyme L and Celluclast 1.5L did not improve degradation of the substrate. Immobilisation of the enzyme mixtures on different supports was performed with the aim of increasing stability and enabling reuse of the enzymes. Immobilisation methods were selected based on the chemical properties of the supports, availability, cost and applicability on heterogeneous and insoluble substrate like apple pomace. These methods included crosslinked enzyme aggregates (CLEAs), immobilisation on various supports such as nylon mesh, nylon beads, sodium alginate beads, chitin and silica gel beads. The immobilisation strategies were unsuccessful, mainly due to the low percentage of immobilisation of the enzyme on the matrix and loss of activity of the immobilised enzyme. Free enzymes were therefore used for the remainder of the study. Hydrolysis conditions for apple pomace degradation were optimised using different temperatures and buffer systems in 1 L volumes mixed with compressed air. Hydrolysis at room temperature, using an unbuffered system, gave a better performance as compared to a buffered system. Reactors operated in batch mode performed better (4.2 g/L (75% yield) glucose and 16.8 g/L (75%) reducing sugar) than fed-batch reactors (3.2 g/L (66%) glucose and 14.6 g/L (72.7% yield) reducing sugar) over 100 h using Viscozyme L and Celluclast 1.5L. Supplementation of β- glucosidase activity in Viscozyme L and Celluclast 1.5L with Novozyme 188 resulted in a doubling of the amount of glucose released. The main products released from apple pomace hydrolysis were galacturonic acid, glucose and arabinose and low amounts of galactose and xylose. These products are potential raw materials for biofuel and biorefinery chemical production. An artificial neural network (ANN) model was successfully developed and used for predicting the optimum conditions for apple pomace hydrolysis using Celluclast 1.5L, Viscozyme L and Novozyme 188. Four main conditions that affect apple pomace hydrolysis were selected, namely temperature, initial pH, enzyme loading and substrate loading, which were taken as inputs. The glucose and reducing sugars released as a result of each treatment and their combinations were taken as outputs for 1–100 h. An ANN with 20, 20 and 6 neurons in the first, second and third hidden layers, respectively, was constructed. The performance and predictive ability of the ANN was good, with a R² of 0.99 and a small mean square error (MSE). New data was successfully predicted and simulated. Optimal hydrolysis conditions predicted by ANN for apple pomace hydrolysis were at 30% substrate (wet w/v) and an enzyme loading of 0.5 mg/g and 0.2 mg/mL of substrate for glucose and reducing sugar, respectively, giving sugar concentrations of 6.5 mg/mL and 28.9 mg/mL for glucose and reducing sugar, respectively. ANN showed that enzyme and substrate loadings were the most important factors for the hydrolysis of apple pomace.
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2014
- Authors: Gama, Repson
- Date: 2014
- Subjects: Enzymes -- Biotechnology , Enzymes -- Industrial applications , Lignocellulose -- Biodegradation , Biomass energy , Biomass conversion , Biochemical engineering , Agricultural wastes as fuel
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Doctoral , PhD
- Identifier: vital:4114 , http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1013073
- Description: Studies into sources of alternative liquid transport fuel energy have identified agro-industrial wastes, which are lignocellulosic in nature, as a potential feedstock for biofuel production against the background of depleting nonrenewable fossil fuels. In South Africa, large quantities of apple and other fruit wastes, called pomace, are generated from fruit and juice industries. Apple pomace is a rich source of cellulose, pectin and hemicellulose, making it a potential target for utilisation as a lignocellulosic feedstock for biofuel and biorefinery chemical production. Lignocellulosic biomass is recalcitrant in nature and therefore its degradation requires the synergistic action of a number of enzymes such as cellulases, hemicellulases, pectinases and ligninases. Commercial enzyme cocktails, containing some of these enzymes, are available and can be used for apple pomace degradation. In this study, the degradation of apple pomace using commercial enzyme cocktails was investigated. The main focus was the optimisation of the release of sugar monomers that could potentially be used for biofuel and biorefinery chemical production. There is no or little information reported in literature on the enzymatic degradation of fruit waste using commercial enzyme mixtures. This study first focused on the characterisation of the substrate (apple pomace) and the commercial enzyme cocktails. Apple pomace was found to contain mainly glucose, galacturonic acid, arabinose, galactose, lignin and low amounts of xylose and fructose. Three commercial enzyme cocktails were initially selected: Biocip Membrane, Viscozyme L (from Aspergillus aculeatus) and Celluclast 1.5L (a Trichoderma reesei ATCC 26921 cellulase preparation). The selection of the enzymes was based on activities declared by the manufacturers, cost and local availability. The enzymes were screened based on their synergistic cooperation in the degradation of apple pomace and the main enzymes present in each cocktail. Viscozyme L and Celluclast 1.5L, in a 50:50 ratio, resulted in the best degree of synergy (1.6) compared to any other combination. The enzyme ratios were determined on Viscozyme L and Celluclast 1.5L based on the protein ratio. Enzyme activity was determined as glucose equivalents using the dinitrosalicylic acid (DNS) method. Sugar monomers were determined using Megazyme assay kits. There is limited information available on the enzymes present in the commercial enzyme cocktails. Therefore, the main enzymes present in Viscozyme L and Celluclast 1.5L were identified using different substrates, each targeted for a specific enzyme and activity. Characterisation of the enzyme mixtures revealed a large number of enzymes required for apple pomace degradation and these included cellulases, pectinases, xylanases, arabinases and mannanases in different proportions. Viscozyme L contained mainly pectinases and hemicellulases, while Celluclast 1.5L displayed largely cellulase and xylanase activity, hence the high degree of synergy reported. The temperature optimum was 50ºC for both enzyme mixtures and pH optima were observed at pH 5.0 and pH 3.0 for Viscozyme L and Celluclast 1.5L, respectively. At 37ºC and pH 5.0, the enzymes retained more that 90% activity after 15 days of incubation, allowing the enzymes to be used together with less energy input. The enzymes were further characterised by determining the effect of various compounds, such as alcohols, sugars, phenolic compounds and metal ions at various concentrations on the activity of the enzymes during apple pomace hydrolysis. Apart from lignin, which had almost no effect on enzyme activity, all the compounds caused inhibition of the enzymes to varying degrees. The most inhibitory compounds were some organic acids and metal ions, as well as cellobiose and xylobiose. Using the best ratio for Viscozyme L and Celluclast 1.5L (50:50) for the hydrolysis of apple pomace, it was observed that synergy was highest at the initial stages of hydrolysis and decreased over time, though the sugar concentration increased. The type of synergy for optimal apple pomace hydrolysis was found to be simultaneous. There was no synergy observed between Viscozyme L and Celluclast 1.5L with ligninases - laccase, lignin peroxidase and manganese peroxidase. Hydrolysing apple pomace with ligninases prior to addition of Viscozyme L and Celluclast 1.5L did not improve degradation of the substrate. Immobilisation of the enzyme mixtures on different supports was performed with the aim of increasing stability and enabling reuse of the enzymes. Immobilisation methods were selected based on the chemical properties of the supports, availability, cost and applicability on heterogeneous and insoluble substrate like apple pomace. These methods included crosslinked enzyme aggregates (CLEAs), immobilisation on various supports such as nylon mesh, nylon beads, sodium alginate beads, chitin and silica gel beads. The immobilisation strategies were unsuccessful, mainly due to the low percentage of immobilisation of the enzyme on the matrix and loss of activity of the immobilised enzyme. Free enzymes were therefore used for the remainder of the study. Hydrolysis conditions for apple pomace degradation were optimised using different temperatures and buffer systems in 1 L volumes mixed with compressed air. Hydrolysis at room temperature, using an unbuffered system, gave a better performance as compared to a buffered system. Reactors operated in batch mode performed better (4.2 g/L (75% yield) glucose and 16.8 g/L (75%) reducing sugar) than fed-batch reactors (3.2 g/L (66%) glucose and 14.6 g/L (72.7% yield) reducing sugar) over 100 h using Viscozyme L and Celluclast 1.5L. Supplementation of β- glucosidase activity in Viscozyme L and Celluclast 1.5L with Novozyme 188 resulted in a doubling of the amount of glucose released. The main products released from apple pomace hydrolysis were galacturonic acid, glucose and arabinose and low amounts of galactose and xylose. These products are potential raw materials for biofuel and biorefinery chemical production. An artificial neural network (ANN) model was successfully developed and used for predicting the optimum conditions for apple pomace hydrolysis using Celluclast 1.5L, Viscozyme L and Novozyme 188. Four main conditions that affect apple pomace hydrolysis were selected, namely temperature, initial pH, enzyme loading and substrate loading, which were taken as inputs. The glucose and reducing sugars released as a result of each treatment and their combinations were taken as outputs for 1–100 h. An ANN with 20, 20 and 6 neurons in the first, second and third hidden layers, respectively, was constructed. The performance and predictive ability of the ANN was good, with a R² of 0.99 and a small mean square error (MSE). New data was successfully predicted and simulated. Optimal hydrolysis conditions predicted by ANN for apple pomace hydrolysis were at 30% substrate (wet w/v) and an enzyme loading of 0.5 mg/g and 0.2 mg/mL of substrate for glucose and reducing sugar, respectively, giving sugar concentrations of 6.5 mg/mL and 28.9 mg/mL for glucose and reducing sugar, respectively. ANN showed that enzyme and substrate loadings were the most important factors for the hydrolysis of apple pomace.
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2014
Lignocellulosic waste degradation using enzyme synergy with commercially available enzymes and Clostridium cellulovorans XylanaseA and MannanaseA
- Authors: Morrison, David Graham
- Date: 2014
- Subjects: Lignocellulose -- Biodegradation , Enzymes -- Biotechnology , Agricultural wastes as fuel , Polysaccharides -- Biotechnology , Sugar -- Inversion , Clostridium , Xylanases , Monomers
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: vital:4119 , http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1013292
- Description: The launch of national and international initiatives to reduce pollution, reliance on fossil fuels and increase the beneficiation of agricultural wastes has prompted research into sugar monomer production from lignocellulosic wastes. These sugars can subsequently be used in the production of biofuels and environmentally degradable plastics. This study investigated the use of synergistic combinations of commercial and pure enzymes to lower enzyme costs and loadings, while increasing enzyme activity in the hydrolysis of agricultural waste. Pineapple pomace was selected due to its current underutilisation and the substantial quantities of it produced annually, as a by-product of pineapple canning. One of the primary costs in beneficiating agricultural wastes, such as pineapple pomace, is the high cost of enzyme solutions used to generate reducing sugars. This can be lowered through the use of synergistic combinations of enzymes. Studies related to the inclusion of hemicellulose degrading enzymes with commercial enzyme solutions have been limited and investigation of these solutions in select combinations, together with pineapple pomace substrate, allows for novel research. The use of synergistic combinations of purified cellulosomal enzymes has previously been shown to be effective at releasing reducing sugars from agricultural wastes. For the present study, MannanaseA and XylanaseA from Clostridium cellulovorans were heterologously expressed in Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3) cells and purified with immobilised metal affinity chromatography. These enzymes, in addition to two commercially available enzyme solutions (Celluclast 1.5L® and Pectinex® 3XL), were assayed on defined polysaccharides that are present in pineapple pomace to determine their substrate specificities. The degree(s) of synergy and specific activities of selected combinations of these enzymes were tested under both simultaneous and sequential conditions. It was observed that several synergistic combinations of enzyme solutions in select ratios, such as C20P60X20 (20% cellulose, 60% pectinase and 20% xylanse), C20P40X40 (20% cellulose, 40% pectinase and 40% xylanase) and C20P80 (20% cellulose, 80% pectinase) with pineapple pomace could both decrease the protein loading, while raising the level of activity compared to individual enzyme solutions. The highest quantity of reducing sugars to protein weight used on pineapple pomace was recorded at 3, 9 and 18 hours with combinations of Pectinex® 3XL and Celluclast 1.5L®, but for 27 h it was combinations of both these commercial solutions with XynA. The contribution of XynA was significant as C20P60X20 displayed the second highest reducing sugar production of 1.521 mg/mL, at 36 h from 12.875 μg/mL of protein, which was the second lowest protein loading. It was also shown that certain enzyme combinations, such as Pectinex® 3XL, Celluclast 1.5L® and XynA, did not generate synergy when combined in solution at the initial stages of hydrolysis, and instead generated a form of competition called anti-synergy. This was due to Pectinex® 3XL which had anti-synergy relationships in select combinations with the other enzyme solutions assayed. It was also observed that the degree of synergy and specific activity for a combination changed over time. Some solutions displayed the highest levels of synergy at the commencement of hydrolysis, namely Celluclast 1.5L®, ManA and XynA. Other combinations exhibited the highest levels of synergy at the end of the assay period, such as Pectinex® 3XL and Celluclast 1.5L®. Whether greater synergy was generated at the start or end of hydrolysis was a function of the stability of the enzymes in solution and whether enzyme activity increased substrate accessibility or generated competition between enzymes in solution. Sequential synergy studies demonstrated an anti-synergy relationship between Pectinex® 3XL and XynA or ManA, as well as Pectinex® 3 XL and Celluclast 1.5L®. It was found that under sequential synergy conditions with Pectinex® 3 XL, XynA and ManA, that anti-synergy could be negated and high degrees of synergy attained when the enzymes were added in specific loading orders and not inhibited by the presence of other active enzymes. The importance of loading order was demonstrated under sequential synergy conditions when XynA was added before ManA followed by Pectinex® 3 XL, which increased the activity and synergy of the solution by 50%. This equates to a 60% increase in reducing sugar release from the same concentrations of enzymes and emphasises the importance of removing anti-synergy relationships from combinations of enzymes. It can be concluded that a C20P60X20 combination (based on activity) can both synergistically increase the reducing sugar production and lower the protein loading required for pineapple pomace hydrolysis. This study also highlights the importance of reducing anti-synergy in customised enzyme cocktails and how sequential synergy can demonstrate the order in which a lignocellulosic waste is degraded.
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2014
- Authors: Morrison, David Graham
- Date: 2014
- Subjects: Lignocellulose -- Biodegradation , Enzymes -- Biotechnology , Agricultural wastes as fuel , Polysaccharides -- Biotechnology , Sugar -- Inversion , Clostridium , Xylanases , Monomers
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: vital:4119 , http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1013292
- Description: The launch of national and international initiatives to reduce pollution, reliance on fossil fuels and increase the beneficiation of agricultural wastes has prompted research into sugar monomer production from lignocellulosic wastes. These sugars can subsequently be used in the production of biofuels and environmentally degradable plastics. This study investigated the use of synergistic combinations of commercial and pure enzymes to lower enzyme costs and loadings, while increasing enzyme activity in the hydrolysis of agricultural waste. Pineapple pomace was selected due to its current underutilisation and the substantial quantities of it produced annually, as a by-product of pineapple canning. One of the primary costs in beneficiating agricultural wastes, such as pineapple pomace, is the high cost of enzyme solutions used to generate reducing sugars. This can be lowered through the use of synergistic combinations of enzymes. Studies related to the inclusion of hemicellulose degrading enzymes with commercial enzyme solutions have been limited and investigation of these solutions in select combinations, together with pineapple pomace substrate, allows for novel research. The use of synergistic combinations of purified cellulosomal enzymes has previously been shown to be effective at releasing reducing sugars from agricultural wastes. For the present study, MannanaseA and XylanaseA from Clostridium cellulovorans were heterologously expressed in Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3) cells and purified with immobilised metal affinity chromatography. These enzymes, in addition to two commercially available enzyme solutions (Celluclast 1.5L® and Pectinex® 3XL), were assayed on defined polysaccharides that are present in pineapple pomace to determine their substrate specificities. The degree(s) of synergy and specific activities of selected combinations of these enzymes were tested under both simultaneous and sequential conditions. It was observed that several synergistic combinations of enzyme solutions in select ratios, such as C20P60X20 (20% cellulose, 60% pectinase and 20% xylanse), C20P40X40 (20% cellulose, 40% pectinase and 40% xylanase) and C20P80 (20% cellulose, 80% pectinase) with pineapple pomace could both decrease the protein loading, while raising the level of activity compared to individual enzyme solutions. The highest quantity of reducing sugars to protein weight used on pineapple pomace was recorded at 3, 9 and 18 hours with combinations of Pectinex® 3XL and Celluclast 1.5L®, but for 27 h it was combinations of both these commercial solutions with XynA. The contribution of XynA was significant as C20P60X20 displayed the second highest reducing sugar production of 1.521 mg/mL, at 36 h from 12.875 μg/mL of protein, which was the second lowest protein loading. It was also shown that certain enzyme combinations, such as Pectinex® 3XL, Celluclast 1.5L® and XynA, did not generate synergy when combined in solution at the initial stages of hydrolysis, and instead generated a form of competition called anti-synergy. This was due to Pectinex® 3XL which had anti-synergy relationships in select combinations with the other enzyme solutions assayed. It was also observed that the degree of synergy and specific activity for a combination changed over time. Some solutions displayed the highest levels of synergy at the commencement of hydrolysis, namely Celluclast 1.5L®, ManA and XynA. Other combinations exhibited the highest levels of synergy at the end of the assay period, such as Pectinex® 3XL and Celluclast 1.5L®. Whether greater synergy was generated at the start or end of hydrolysis was a function of the stability of the enzymes in solution and whether enzyme activity increased substrate accessibility or generated competition between enzymes in solution. Sequential synergy studies demonstrated an anti-synergy relationship between Pectinex® 3XL and XynA or ManA, as well as Pectinex® 3 XL and Celluclast 1.5L®. It was found that under sequential synergy conditions with Pectinex® 3 XL, XynA and ManA, that anti-synergy could be negated and high degrees of synergy attained when the enzymes were added in specific loading orders and not inhibited by the presence of other active enzymes. The importance of loading order was demonstrated under sequential synergy conditions when XynA was added before ManA followed by Pectinex® 3 XL, which increased the activity and synergy of the solution by 50%. This equates to a 60% increase in reducing sugar release from the same concentrations of enzymes and emphasises the importance of removing anti-synergy relationships from combinations of enzymes. It can be concluded that a C20P60X20 combination (based on activity) can both synergistically increase the reducing sugar production and lower the protein loading required for pineapple pomace hydrolysis. This study also highlights the importance of reducing anti-synergy in customised enzyme cocktails and how sequential synergy can demonstrate the order in which a lignocellulosic waste is degraded.
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2014
- «
- ‹
- 1
- ›
- »